The word 'stripped' has multiple meanings, primarily relating to the removal or reduction of something.
It can refer to the act of removing covering or outer layers from an object, leaving it bare or exposed.
It can also describe the process of robbing or depriving someone of something valuable or essential. Figuratively, it can mean being reduced to a basic or essential form, devoid of non-essential elements.
Furthermore, it can indicate a thread or a screw becoming damaged, losing its ability to grip. .
RID
BARE
NAKED BARED
PEELED
DENUDED
DISROBED
PEELEDOFF UNDRESSED
BAREDITALL
STRIPPEDDOWN